Vikipediya

Ispan grippi

Ispan grippi (Ispanka) 1918-yilgi gripp pandemiyasi[6]. Ispan grippi H1N1ning A virusi keltirib chiqargan va katta talofatlarga olib kelgan, global gripp pandemiyasi. Qayd etilgan eng birinchi holat 1918-yil mart oyida Qo'shma Shtatlarning Kanzas shtatida sodir bo'lgan. AQSHdan keyingi yangi holatlar aprel oyida Fransiya, Germaniya va Buyuk Britaniyada qayd etilgan. Ikki yil o'tgach, dunyo aholisining deyarli uchdan bir qismi yoki taxminan 500 million kishi ushbu kasallikni oʻziga yuqtirib olishgan. O'lim darajasi 17 milliondan 50 milliongacha[7] oradan biroz vaqt oʻtib 100 millionga yetgan, bu koʻrsatkichlar ispan grippini tarixdagi eng halokatli pandemiyalardan biriga aylantirgan. Pandemiya Birinchi Jahon Urushining soʻngiga yaqin boshlangan, urushda qatnashayotgan mamlakatlar rahbarlari gʻalayonlar boshlanib ketmasligi uchun pandemiya haqidagi xabarni oshkor qilishmagan, ammo neytral ommaviy axborot vositalari Ispaniyada avj olgani pandemiya haqida xabarlar tarqatishgan. Ispaniyani kasallik markazi sifatida noto'g'ri maʻlumotlar tarqatishgan va xalqlar orasida bu pandemiya "Ispan grippi" nomini olgan[8]. Tarixiy epidemiologik ma'lumotlarda bu pandemiyaning geografik kelib chiqishi haqida aniq maʻlumotlar yoʻq[2]. Ispan grippi boshqa epidemiyalar singari keksa va yoshlarga bir xil taʻsir qilgan ammo kasallanganlar orasida oʻlim holati yoshlarda koʻp kuzatilgan[9]. Olimlar oʻlim sonining koʻp boʻlishiga suv orqali yuqadigan kasalliklarning anomaliyalari ispan grippi bilan bir vaqtda odamlarga taʻsir qilgan degan taxminni olgʻa surishgan[10]. Virusdan zararlanganlar orasida oʻlim soninning koʻp boʻlishiga, kasallikning sitokin bo'ronini qo'zg'atishi va buning oqibatida yoshlardagi immunitet kekslar immunitetiga nisbatan tezroq halok boʻlishi kuzatilgan[11], ammo virusli infeksiya avvalgi gripp shtammlariga qaraganda tajovuzkor hisoblanmgan[12][13]. Noto'g'ri ovqatlanish, urush tufayli antisanitariya holati bilan toʻlib toshgan tibbiy lagerlar va kasalxonalar, gigiyena qoidalariga rioya qilmaslik kasallik infeksiyasini kuchaytirgan natijada virus bilan zararlanganlarning koʻpchiligi vafot etishgan[14][15]. 1918-yilda sodir boʻlgan ispan grippi H1N1 grippi A virusi keltirib chiqargan uchta gripp pandemiyasining birinchisi boʻlgan. Bundan tashqari 1977-yilgi rus grippi[16][17] va 2009-yilgi cho'chqa grippi ham H1N1 virusidan kelib chiqqan[16][18]

Ispan grippi

Kasalxonadagi ispan grippi bilan kasallangan askalar boʻlimi, Kanzas.
Kasallik Influenza
Virus shtammlari Influenza A virusining H1N1 shtammi
Joylashuv Butun dunyoda
Birinchi holati AQSH, Kanzas
Aniqlangan sanasi 1918-yil
Sana 1918-yil fevral - 1920-yil aprel[1]
Shubhali holatlar‡ 500 million (taxminan)[2]
Oʻlimlar
 25–50 million (umumiy qabul qilingan), boshqa taxminlar 17 dan 100 milliongacha[3][4][5]

Etimiologiya

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El Sol (Madrid), 28-May 1918-yil: "3 kunlik isitma oqibatida Ispaniyada 80 000 kishi zararlandi"

Bu pandemiya vaqtiga va joyiga qarab yangi va eski turlariga boʻlingan. Pandemiya oqibatida odamlarning halok boʻlishi turli fikrlarni paydo qilgan, faqatgina pandemiya paydo boʻlib boshlaganidan bir yil oʻtibgina odamlar bu pandemiyani koʻrinmaydigan influenza viruslari paydo qilishini bilishgan[19]. Bu kasallik uchun ilmiy javoblarning yoʻqligi tufayli Sierra Leone Weekly News (Freetown) gazetasi Bibliya yordamida pandemiyani yengishga chaqirgan[20][21][22].

Nomlari

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Grippga o'xshash epidemiyalar 1916—1917-yillarda Fransiyaning Etbles shahrida joylashgan Britaniya harbiy kasalxonalarida[23] va Angliyaning Aldershot shahridagi La-Mansh hududida kuzatilgan[24]. 1918-yilgi pandemiya bilan kasallangan bemorlarda "qora" geliotropik yuz sianozi tez rivojlangan. O'lim toʻshagida yotgan bemorlarda esa ko'k-binafsha sianoz kuzatilib "qirmizi o'lim" nomini olgan[25][26][27]. Keyinchalik Aldershot shifokorlari "Lancet"da shunday deb yozganlar: "Biz va boshqa shifokorlar 1916 va 1917-yillarda duch kelgan gripp, pnevmokokk, yiringli bronxit, asosan hozirgi pandemiya davridagi gripp bilan deyarli bir xil,[28] yiringli bronxitlarni o'sha A/H1N1 virusi[29] bilan bog'liqligini bilmas edik[29], lekin u hozirgi pandemiyaning ilk alomatlari boʻlishi mumkin"[28][30][31]. 1918-yilda “epidemik infulenza” (italyancha: influenza, influence)[32], (fransuzcha: la grippe),[33] nomlarini olgan. AQSHning Kanzas shtatida bahor oxirida paydo boʻlgan. Ispaniyadan pandemoya haqidagi dastlabki xabarlar 21-mayda paydo bo'la boshlagan[34][35]. Ikkala davlatdan olingan xabarlarda uni "uch kunlik isitma" (fiebre de los tres días) deb atashgan[36][37][38].

Assotsiativ nomlar

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Front page of The Times (London), 25-iyul 1918-yil: "Ispan Influenzasi"

Pandemiyaga berilgan ko'pgina muqobil nomlar yangi yuqumli kasalliklar qaysi davlat hududida paydo boʻlsa, shunga moslangan ekzonimlardur[39][40][41]. Bu holat 1889—1890 yillargacha ham kuzatilgan. Masalan: Yevropada "rus grippi" deb nom olgan pandemiyani ruslar grippni "Xitoycha yoki Qatarcha turi" deb hiosblashgan, nemislar "rus infeksiyasi" deb atashgan, italiyaliklar esa, o'z navbatida uni "nemis grippi" deb nomlashgan[42][43]. Bu epitetlardan 1918-yilgi pandemiya paytida qayta foydalanilgan[44].

Ispan grippi

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Advertisement in The Times, 1918-yil 28-iyunda "Ispan grippi"ning oldini olish uchun Formamint tabletkalari."

Ispaniyadan boshqa davlatlarda kasallik "ispan grippi" nomini olgan[45][46]. Londonning The Times gazetasi 1918-yil 2-iyundagi "Ispaniya epidemiyasi" deb nomlangan xabarida Madriddagi muxbir "ispan grippi" haqida ochiqdan ochiq aytmasdan uni aniq gripp xarakteriga ega noma'lum kasallik deb nomlagan va bu kasallik oqibatida 100 000 dan ortiq insonlar qurbon boʻlganligi haqida aytgan[47]. Uch hafta o'tgach, The Times gazetasi "bugun hamma buni "ispan" grippi deb o'ylaydi", nomli maqola chop etgan[48]. Uch kundan so'ng "The Times" da "Ispan grippi" ning oldini olish uchun Formamint tabletkalaridan foydalanish haqida e'lon paydo bo'lgan[49][50]. Kasalliik Moskvaga yetib borgach, Pravda gazetasi: "Shaharda ispanka yuribdi" deb e'lon bergan, bu esa "ispankani" yana bir umumiy nomga aylantirgan[51]. Kasallik Ispaniyada paydo boʻlmagan[52], lekin urushayotgan mamlakatlardagi urush davridagi senzura tufayli u davlatlar oʻzlarida boʻlayotgan epidemik holatlar haqida maʻlumot berishmagan. Ispaniya betaraf davlat bo'lgan, jangovar harakatlarda qatnashmagan va urush davrida biror davlat bilan birga urushga kirish uchun tashviqot ishlari ham olib borilmagan[53][54]. Shu sababli Ispaniya gazetasi epidemiya qoibatlari xatto qirol Alfonso XIII kasalligi haqida bemalol xabarlar chop etishgan[55]. Bu xabarlar Ispaniyani epidemiyaning markaziga aylantirgan. Senzura shunchalik samarali bo'lganki, Ispaniya sog'liqni saqlash rasmiylari qo'shni davlatlarda ham bu kasallik borligidan bexabar boʻlishgan[56] 1918-yil oktyabr oyida Amerika Tibbiyot Assotsiatsiyasi jurnalida chop etilgan "Madrid maktubi" maqolasida ispan rasmiysi: "Kasallik boshqa mamlakatlarda vayronagarchiliklar keltirib chiqarayotganini va u yerdagi odamlar buni "Ispan grippi" deb ataganini bilib hayron bo'ldik. ... Nega ispan grippi? ... "[57] "The Serbian Newspaper" "Bu epidemiya Ispaniyada paydo bo'lmagan va bu tarixiy asos sifatida qayd etilishi kerak. Kasallikning kelib chiqishi uzoq vaqt davomida bir-biriga bog'liq patalogiyalar oqibati sifatida koʻriladi va urushayotgan davlatlar Ispaniya neytral qolganligi uchun Ispaniyani aybdor qilishga kelishib olganlar" mazmunidagi maqolani chop etgan[58].

 
"Spanish influenza," "three-day fever," "the flu." Muallif:Rupert Blue, Jarrohlik Markazi, 28-Sentyabr 1918-yil

Boshqa ekzonimlar

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Fransuz matbuoti dastlab "Amerika grippi" terminidan foydalangan[59], ammo keyinchalik "ispan grippi" terminini qabul qilgan. 1918-yil bahorida ingliz askarlari epidemiyani "Flandriya grippi" deb atashgan, nemis askarlari Belgiyadagi mashhur jangdan keyin "Flandern-tola" (Flamand isitmasi) terminidan foydalanganlar[44][41][24][60]. Senegalda „Braziliya grippi“ Braziliyada esa „German grippi“ deb atalgan[61]. Ispaniyada kasallik zarzuelaning mashhur qo'shig'idan keyin "fransuz grippi" (gripe francesa),[52][8] yoki "Neapolitan askari"(Soldado de Nápoles) nomi bilan ham tanilgan[59]. Ispan grippi termini keyinchalik Ispaniyada ham ken tarqalgan[62], ammo bu nom hali hamon bahsli bo'lib qolmoqda[63][64]. Boshqa nomlar geosiyosiy va ijtimoiy chegaralardan olingan. Polshada bu "bolshevik kasalligi" deb atalgan[61][65] bo'lsa bolsheviklar uni "qirg'iz kasalligi" deb atashgan[60]. Ba'zi afrikaliklar buni "oq odamning kasalligi" deb ham atashgan, ammo Janubiy Afrikada oq tanlilar 'kaffersiekte' (so'zma-so'z "Negro kasalligi") etnofaulizmidan ham foydalanganlar[44][66]. Yaponiyaliklar sumo kurashchilarini Tayvandagi o'yindan kasallik olib kelganlikda ayblab, uni "sumo grippi" (Sumo Kaze) deb atshgan, Tayvanda yaponlarning uchta eng yaxshi kurashchisi vafot etgan[67]. Ko'pgina mualliflar kasallikni ispan grippi deb atashdan bosh tortishgan[68][40][69][59], buning o'rniga ular "1918-yilgi gripp pandemiyasi" variantlarini ishlatishgan[70][71][72].

Lokal nomlar

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Pandemiyaning ayrim til endonimlari muayyan mintaqalar yoki odamlar guruhlariga qarab nomlangan. Ushbu pandemiyaga xos misollar: Shimoliy Ndebeleda: "malibuzwe", suahilida: "ugonjo huo kichwa na kukohoa na kiuno", yaoda: "chipindupindu", Otjihereroda: 'kaapitohanga' va forschada: 'nakhushi-yi bad' kabi nomlarni olgan[73][74][75][76].

Boshqa nomlar

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Ushbu epidemiya, shuningdek, "Buyuk urush" dan keyingi "Buyuk gripp" nomi bilan ham tanilgan[77][78]. Fransuz harbiy shifokorlari dastlab kasallikni "kasallik 11" (maladie onze) deb atashgan[41]. Nemis shifokorlari kasallikning og'irligini kamaytirib, uni "pseudoflu" (lotincha pseudo, yolg'on) deb atashgan bo'lsa, Afrikada shifokorlar bemorlarni jiddiyroq qabul qilishga urinib, uni "haqiqiy gripp" (lotincha vera, rost) deb atashgan[79].

Kasallik tarixi

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1918-yilgi ilk toʻlqin

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Ispan grippi pandemiyasi vaqtida Seattle politsiyachilari Qizil Xoch tashkiloti tomonidan tarqatilgan niqoblarda. 1918-yil dekabr

Pandemiya ommaviy 1918-yil 4-martda boshlangan, AQShning Kanzas shtatidagi Camp Funstonda ilk holatlar harbiy oshpaz Albert Gitchellning kundaliklarida qayd etilgan[80]. Kasallik 1918-yil yanvar oyidayoq Haskell okrugidan 200 milya (320 km) uzoqlikda kuzatilgan, bu haqida mahalliy shifokor Loring Minerni AQSh sog'liqni saqlash xizmatining Public Health Reports akademik jurnali muharrirlarini ogohlantirishga uringan[11]. 4-mart kuni Camp Funstonda birinchi holatdan bir necha kun o'tgach, lagerda 522 kishi kasal bo'lganligi haqida xabar berishgan. 1918-yil 11-martga kelib virus New-Yorkning Queens shahriga yetib borgan[81]. Mart/aprel oylarida profilaktika choralari ko‘rilmaganiligi keyinchalik tanqid qilingan[82]. AQSH Birinchi jahon urushiga kirgach, kasallik Amerika ekspeditsion kuchlarining asosiy qoʻshinlari uchun poligon boʻlgan Camp Funstondan AQSh armiyasining boshqa lagerlari va Yevropaga tez tarqalgan, Oʻrta Gʻarb, Sharqiy qirgʻoq va Fransiya portlarida ham epidemiya tarqalgan. 1918-yil apreli oʻrtalarigacha kasallik Gʻarbiy frontga yetib kelgan[80]. Keyin kasallik tezda Fransiya, Buyuk Britaniya, Italiya va Ispaniyaga toʻliq tarqalgan va may oyida Vrotslav va Odessaga ham yetib kelgan[80]. Brest-Litovsk shartnomasi imzolangandan so'ng (1918-yil mart) Germaniya rossiyalik harbiy asirlarni ozod qila boshlagan, ularkasallikni Rossiyadan o'z mamlakatlariga olib kelishgan[83]. May oyida kasallik Shimoliy Afrika, Hindiston va Yaponiyaga yetib borgan, aprel oyida Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoda kasallik qayd etilgan[84] va ko'p o'tmay butun dunyo bo'ylab tarqalgan. Iyun oyida Xitoyda epidemiya haqida xabar berilgan[85]. Iyul oyida kasallik Avstraliyaga yetib borganidan keyin epidemiya toʻlqini pasayishni boshlagan[84]. Grippning birinchi to'lqini 1918-yilning birinchi choragidan boshlab yana davom etgan va nisbatan yengil kechgan[86]. O'lim darajasi koʻp boʻlmagan[2]. Qo'shma Shtatlarda 1918-yilning birinchi olti oyida gripp bilan bog'liq ~75,000 ta o'lim qayd etilgan, 1915-yilning shu davrida esa ~63,000 ta o'lim qayd etilgan[87]. Madridda (Ispaniya) 1918-yil may va iyun oylari orasida 1000 nafardan kam odam grippdan vafot etgan[88]. 1918-yilning birinchi choragida karantinlar haqida xabar berilmagan. Biroq, ilk toʻlqin Birinchi jahon urushidagi harbiy harakatlarda jiddiy kasallanishlar kuzatilgan. Xususan: fransuz qoʻshinlarining toʻrtdan uch qismi, Britaniya qoʻshinlarining yarmi va 900 000 dan ortiq nemis askari gripp bilan kasallangan[89].

Manbalar

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  1. ↑ Manba xatosi: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named NIH-NYC
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 Taubenberger & Morens 2006.
  3. ↑ „Pandemic Influenza Risk Management WHO Interim Guidance“. World Health Organization (2013). 2021-yil 21-yanvarda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 21-avgust.
  4. ↑ Manba xatosi: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named pmid30202996
  5. ↑ „History's deadliest pandemics, from ancient Rome to modern America“ (2020-yil 7-aprel). 2020-yil 7-aprelda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 11-aprel.
  6. ↑ Hale, Tom „Flu Strains Descended From 1918 "Spanish Flu" Pandemic Still Linger Today, New Study Suggests“. IFLSCIENCE (2022-yil 10-may). Qaraldi: 2023-yil 7-yanvar.
  7. ↑ CDC „The Discovery and Reconstruction of the 1918 Pandemic Virus“ (en-us). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019-yil 17-dekabr). Qaraldi: 2022-yil 19-sentyabr.
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 „The Origin Of The Name 'Spanish Flu'“. Science Friday (2019-yil 29-yanvar). — „Etymology: In ancient times, before epidemiology science, people believed the stars and “heavenly bodies” flowed into us and dictated our lives and health—influenza means 'to influence' in Italian, and the word stems from the Latin for 'flow in.' Sickness, like other unexplainable events, was attributed to the influence of the stars... But the name for the infamous 1918 outbreak, the Spanish flu, is actually a misnomer.“. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 30-iyul.
  9. ↑ Gagnon, Miller & et al 2013, s. e69586.
  10. ↑ "The Impact of a Six-Year Climate Anomaly on the "Spanish Flu" Pandemic and WWI". GeoHealth 4 (9): e2020GH000277. September 2020. doi:10.1029/2020GH000277. PMID 33005839. PMC 7513628. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=7513628. 
  11. ↑ 11,0 11,1 Barry 2004b.
  12. ↑ "Pathology of the pneumonia following influenza". Journal of the American Medical Association 72 (10): 720–23. 1919. doi:10.1001/jama.1919.02610100028012. https://zenodo.org/record/1423419. Qaraldi: 16 August 2019. Ispan grippi]]
  13. ↑ "An epidemic of pneumococcus broncho-pneumonia". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 24 (6): 594–617. 1919. doi:10.1093/infdis/24.6.594. https://zenodo.org/record/1431769. Qaraldi: 24 May 2020. Ispan grippi]]
  14. ↑ "What really happened during the 1918 influenza pandemic? The importance of bacterial secondary infections". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 196 (11): 1717–18; author reply 1718–19. December 2007. doi:10.1086/522355. PMID 18008258. 
  15. ↑ "The 1918 influenza pandemic: insights for the 21st century". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 195 (7): 1018–28. April 2007. doi:10.1086/511989. PMID 17330793. 
  16. ↑ 16,0 16,1 „Influenza Pandemic Plan. The Role of WHO and Guidelines for National and Regional Planning“. World Health Organization 38, 41 (1999-yil aprel). 2020-yil 3-dekabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan.
  17. ↑ "Novel swine-origin influenza A virus in humans: another pandemic knocking at the door". Medical Microbiology and Immunology 198 (3): 175–83. August 2009. doi:10.1007/s00430-009-0118-5. PMID 19543913. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00430-009-0118-5/tables/1. Qaraldi: 26 July 2021. Ispan grippi]]
  18. ↑ "Swine-origin influenza virus in young age groups". Lancet 373 (9681): 2108–09. June 2009. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61145-4. PMID 19541030. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(09)61145-4/abstract. Qaraldi: 5 April 2021. Ispan grippi]]
  19. ↑ Davis 2013, s. 7: "In short, although the Spanish flu 'had nothing "Spanish" about it,' from a strictly epidemiological perspective, its discursive link to the Iberian nation is beyond dispute. The importance of narrative for a historically informed appreciation of the epidemic stems from the importance of this discursive link and is tied directly to the scientific uncertainty about the etiological agent of the epidemic;"
  20. ↑ Spinney 2018, s. 65: "In Freetown, a newspaper suggested that the disease be called manhu until more was known about it. Manhu, a Hebrew word meaning 'what is it?'
  21. ↑ Cole F (1994), Sierra Leone and World War 1, University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies, 213-bet, 10731720, qaraldi: 7 Avgust 2023 — ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, „local interpretations of the crisis had become deeply reminiscent of the increasing disobedience of the Israelites in the wilderness of Sin. It was therefore urged that the epidemic be called 'Man hu,' (an obvious corruption of "manna") meaning 'what is it?'“
  22. ↑ Sierra Leone Weekly News, XXXV-jild, 9 July 1918, 6-bet quoted in Mueller JW (1998), p. 8.
  23. ↑ "Purulent Bronchitis". The Lancet 190 (4898): 41–46. 14 July 1917. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(01)56229-7. ISSN 0140-6736. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)56229-7.  Alt URL
  24. ↑ 24,0 24,1 „Spanische Grippe“ [The Spanish Flu] (de). www.fes.de. Bonn: Friedrich Ebert Foundation (2020). — „In Europa wurde die Spanischer Grippe auch als 'Blitzkatarrh', als 'Flandern-Fieber', 'flandische Grippe', bei Engländern und Amerikanern als 'three-day'- oder 'knock-me-down'-Fieber, und in Frankreich als 'la grippe', als 'bronchite purulente' (eitrige Bronchitis) oder beim französische Militärärzte als 'Krankheit 11' (maladie onze) bezeichnet. Die Benennung von Krankheiten und insbesondere Seuchen nach ihrem vermuteten Ursprungsort ist nichts Ungewöhnliches. Es ist der Versuch, einem Geschehen auf die Spur zu kommen. Zugleich werden auf diese Weise Krankheiten als etwas Äußerliches gekennzeichnet, als etwas Fremdes, das eingedrungen ist oder eingeschleppt wurde.“. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 31-iyul.
  25. ↑ "The Spanish flu--Part I: the first wave". Vojnosanitetski Pregled 69 (9): 812–817. September 2012. ISSN 0042-8450. PMID 23050410. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23050410. "the Purple Death … name resulted from the specific skin colour in the most severe cases of the diseased, who by the rule also succumbed to the disease, and is also at the same time the only one which does not link this disease with the Iberian peninsula. This name is actually the most correct." 
  26. ↑ "The Purple Death. Some things remembered about the influenza epidemic of 1918 at one army camp". Journal of Occupational Medicine (Industrial Medical Association) 8 (11): 593–598. 8 November 1966. ISSN 0096-1736. PMID 5334191. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5334191. 
  27. ↑ Purple death : the mysterious Spanish flu of 1918, 19 September 2017. ISBN 978-1-250-13909-2. OCLC 1006711971. 
  28. ↑ 28,0 28,1 "A possible European origin of the Spanish influenza and the first attempts to reduce mortality to combat superinfecting bacteria: an opinion from a virologist and a military historian" (en). Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 15 (9): 2009–2012. 2 September 2019. doi:10.1080/21645515.2019.1607711. ISSN 2164-5515. PMID 31121112. PMC 6773402. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=6773402. "Two papers were published in The Lancet in 1917 describing an outbreak of disease constituting 'almost a small epidemic'. The first paper was written by physicians at a hospital center in northern France,3 and the second by a team at an army hospital in Aldershot, in southern England. In both earlier instances and in the 1918 pandemic the disease was characterized by a 'dusky' cyanosis, a rapid progression from quite minor symptoms to death" 
  29. ↑ 29,0 29,1 Manba xatosi: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Cox
  30. ↑ "Spanish influenza redux: revisiting the mother of all pandemics" (en). The Lancet 391 (10139): 2492–2495. 23 June 2018. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31360-6. PMID 29976462. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673618313606. "Labelled 'purulent bronchitis' for want of a better term, the disease proved fatal in half the cases and many soldiers also developed cyanosis. 2 years later, British respiratory experts, also writing in The Lancet, but this time in the wake of the pandemic, would decide the disease had been 'fundamentally the same condition' as 'Spanish' influenza" 
  31. ↑ "Relationship between 'purulent bronchitis' in military populations in Europe prior to 1918 and the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic: Precursors of pandemic influenza". Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 6 (4): 235–239. 27 November 2011. doi:10.1111/j.1750-2659.2011.00309.x. PMID 22118532. PMC 5779808. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=5779808. 
  32. ↑ „OLD NEWS: Influenza was an old foe long before 1918“. Arkansas Democrat-Gazette (2020-yil 21-sentyabr). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 7-avgust. „I came across this seemingly astute analysis in the Dec. 21, 1913, Gazette.... It was a 'Special Cable to the Gazette Through the International News Service.' Grip Is a Disease Without a Country; All Nations Repudiate Malady: Each Blaming Other Kingdoms, London, Dec. 20. — The grip is a disease without a country, according to a new book just issued which is devoted to the malady. Every country tries to make it out a native of another land.... Eighteenth-century Italian writers say Dr. Hopkirk spoke of "una influenza di freddo" (influence of cold), and English physicians, mistaking the word influenza for the name of the disease itself, used it. The same term is also used in Germany, where a host of dialect names still prevail, such as lightning catarrh and fog plague.“.
  33. ↑ „Grippe is not new“. Los Angeles Herald (1899-yil 14-yanvar). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 7-avgust. „French doctors gave it the name of "la grippe," which is now anglicized into "the grip" ... It is known all over the world, and there is a disposition in every nation to shift the odium of it upon some other country. Then the Russians call it the Chinese catarrh, the Germans often call it the Russian pest, the Italians name it the German disease, and the French call it sometimes the Italian fever and sometimes the Spanish catarrh.“.
  34. ↑ Davis 2013, s. 27: "On May 21, 1918, El Liberal published a scant article titled 'Can One Live? The Fashionable Illness.' Likely the first account in Spain of the Spanish flu, it begins: 'For several days, Madrid has been affected by an epidemic, which fortunately is mild; but which, from what it appears, intends to kill doctors from overwork'.... The following day, El Sol and ABC published their first stories about the epidemic: 'What is the Cause? An Epidemic in Madrid' and 'Benign Epidemic. The Sickbay in Madrid,' respectively."
  35. ↑ „La fiebre de los tres días“ [The three-day fever] (es). La Voz de Galicia (2015-yil 7-dekabr). — „Las primeras noticias aparecieron en la prensa de Madrid el 21 de mayo de 1918.“. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 29-iyul.
  36. ↑ „Spanish flu of 1918 no three-day fever. Try 365-day worldwide plague“. York Daily Record (2009-yil 1-may). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 29-iyul.
  37. ↑ „La fiebre de los tres días“ (es). Diario de León (2021-yil 29-iyul). Qaraldi: 2018-yil 21-oktyabr.
  38. ↑ „Impacto de la gripe de 1918 en España“ (es). Comité Asesor de Vacunas de la Asociación Española de Pediatría. — „En España, se le llamó al principio 'la fiebre de los tres días', atendiendo a la creencia, como en otros países, de que la gripe era una enfermedad leve. Las primeras noticias sobre la gripe, llamando la atención sobre que algo distinto estaba ocurriendo, aparecieron en la prensa a finales de mayo. Por ej. en el diario ABC el 22 de mayo mediante una escueta nota en la página 24: 'Los médicos han comprobado, en Madrid, la existencia de una epidemia de índole gripal, muy propagada, pero, por fortuna, de carácter leve'.“. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 29-iyul.
  39. ↑ The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918-1919: New Perspectives. Routledge, 2 September 2003. ISBN 978-1-134-56640-2. „In the popular mind calamities often need to have their origin and cause identified and other countries or peoples credited with blame. This xenophobic response has been common in Europe, that impulse to blame others or the silent places of the Asian heartlands for the source of disease.“ 
  40. ↑ 40,0 40,1 ""Spanish Flu": When Infectious Disease Names Blur Origins and Stigmatize Those Infected". American Journal of Public Health 108 (11): 1462–1464. November 2018. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2018.304645. PMID 30252513. PMC 6187801. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=6187801. 
  41. ↑ 41,0 41,1 41,2 (de) Pandemie – Welt im Fieber. 2020. https://www.freitag.de/autoren/der-freitag/welt-im-fieber. Qaraldi: 31 July 2021. "In Großbritannien wurde die Krankheit dagegen als 'Flandrische Grippe' bezeichnet, weil sich viele —en in den Schützengräben von Flandern ansteckten." Ispan grippi]]
  42. ↑ A System of Medicine. Macmillan, 1866 — 30–31-bet. „One is, that every epidemic owns one unknown source, whence it spreads; each nation, in turn, attributing to its neighbour from whom it derived the disease, the unenviable honour of originating it. Thus the Italians have termed it the German disease; the Germans, the Russian pest; the Russians, the Chinese Catarrh;“ 
  43. ↑ "Editorials: La Grippe". Gaillard's Medical Journal 50: 217. January 1890. https://books.google.com/books?id=87tXAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Like+every+other+disease+about+whose+pathology+we+know+very+little,%22&pg=PA217. "The outbreak immediately preceding the present one was in 1879, and has been well described by Da Costa. Like every other disease about whose pathology we know very little, this malady has not a scientifically correct name, but at different times and in different countries has received names which are almost purely local; thus the Russians have called it the Chinese catarrh, because it has often invaded Russia from China. The Germans call it the Russian pest, while the Italians in turn call it the German disease." 
  44. ↑ 44,0 44,1 44,2 More deadly than war : the hidden history of the Spanish flu and the First World War, First, New York, 2018. ISBN 978-1-250-14512-3. OCLC 1034984776. „The Russians called it the Chinese flu. In Japan, it was wrestler's fever. In South Africa, it was known as either the white man's sickness or kaffersiekte blacks' disease. Soldiers fighting in the Great War called it the three-day fever—a highly inaccurate description—and when it first struck in the spring of 1918, German soldiers called it Flanders fever, after one of the war's most notorious and deadly battlefields“ 
  45. ↑ Porras-Gallo & Davis 2014, s. 51.
  46. ↑ Galvin 2007.
  47. ↑ Own Correspondent.. „The Spanish Epidemic“. The Times (1918-yil 2-iyun). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 29-iyul. „The unknown disease which appeared in Madrid a fortnight ago spread with remarkable rapidity.... It is reported that there are well over 100,000 victims in Madrid alone.... Although the disease is clearly of a gripal character...“.
  48. ↑ „The Spanish Influenza; A Sufferer's Symptoms.“. The Times (1918-yil 25-iyun). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 29-iyul.
  49. ↑ „Public Notice; 'Spanish Influenza' Epidemic“. The Times (1918-yil 28-iyun). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 11-avgust.
  50. ↑ „Eat More Onions!“ (en). Lapham's Quarterly (2018-yil 13-sentyabr). — „daily newspapers carried an increasing number of advertisements for influenza-related remedies as drug companies played on the anxieties of readers and reaped the benefits. From the Times of London to the Washington Post, page after page was filled with dozens of advertisements for preventive measures and over-the-counter remedies. 'Influenza!' proclaimed an advert extolling the virtues of Formamint lozenges.“. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 12-avgust.
  51. ↑ „In Search of an Enigma: The "Spanish Lady"“. NIMR History (2018-yil 29-aprel). — „In turn, when Russia reported on the situation in Moscow, Pravda printed "Ispanka (The Spanish Lady) is in town" and the name has stuck.“. 2018-yil 29-aprelda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 9-avgust.
  52. ↑ 52,0 52,1 "The 1918 "Spanish flu" in Spain". Clinical Infectious Diseases 47 (5): 668–73. September 2008. doi:10.1086/590567. PMID 18652556. 
  53. ↑ „Spanish flu facts“. Channel 4 News. 2010-yil 27-yanvarda asl nusxadan arxivlangan.
  54. ↑ „Analysis of Spanish flu cases in 1918–1920 suggests transfusions might help in bird flu pandemic“. American College of Physicians (2006-yil 29-avgust). 2011-yil 25-noyabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 2-oktyabr.
  55. ↑ Barry 2004, s. 171.
  56. ↑ „The centenary of the 20th century's worst catastrophe“ (2018-yil 29-sentyabr). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 3-avgust. „On June 29th 1918 Martín Salazar, Spain's inspector-general of health, stood up in front of the Royal Academy of Medicine in Madrid. He declared, not without embarrassment, that the disease which was ravaging his country was to be found nowhere else in Europe. In fact, that was not true. The illness in question, influenza, had been sowing misery in France and Britain for weeks, and in America for longer, but Salazar did not know this because the governments of those countries, a group then at war with Germany and its allies, had made strenuous efforts to suppress such potentially morale-damaging news.“.
  57. ↑ "Madrid Letter". Journal of the American Medical Association 71 (19): 1594. 9 November 1918. https://books.google.com/books?id=iohMAQAAMAAJ&q=%22we+were+surprised+to+learn+that+the+disease+was+making+ravages+in+other+countries+,+and+that+people+there+were+calling+it+the+%22+Spanish+grip+.+%E2%80%9D+And+wherefore+Spanish+&pg=PA1594. 
  58. ↑ "The Spanish flu – Part I: the first wave". Vojnosanitetski Pregled 69 (9): 812–817. September 2012. ISSN 0042-8450. PMID 23050410. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23050410. "'The Serbian Newspaper' wrote in the period October 23 / November 5, 1918 at the peak of the second, deadliest wave of the pandemic: 'Various countries have been assigning the origin of this imposing guest to each other for quite some time, and at one point in time they agreed to assign its origin to the kind and neutral Spain, which had been fighting off this honour just as much as German submarines, so imposing in their search for hospitality off Spanish shores.'" 
  59. ↑ 59,0 59,1 59,2 "The Spanish flu and the fiction literature". Revista Espanola de Quimioterapia 33 (5): 296–312. October 2020. doi:10.37201/req/049.2020. PMID 32633114. PMC 7528412. https://seq.es/abstract/rev-esp-quimioter-2020-july-7-2/. "French journalists had, initially, called it the 'American flu'; but the fact that the American soldiers were his allies in the warlike conflict advised not to assign such a link to them.... Another most popular name in Madrid, was the 'Soldado de Nápoles' (Naples soldier), a popular song in the zarzuela (popular musical genre or 'género chico' in Spain) called La canción del olvido (The forgotten song) due both, were 'highly contagious'. Today, there are many authors who avoid such a name (the Spanish flu) and they aptly refer to it as the '1918- 1819[sic] influenza pandemic'" 
  60. ↑ 60,0 60,1 „From the 'Spanish Flu' to COVID-19: lessons from the 1918 pandemic and First World War“. International Committee of the Red Cross (2020-yil 23-aprel). — „Many other nicknames were given to the pandemic, many based on nationality or race: 'Spanish Lady', 'French Flu', 'Naples Soldier', 'Purple Death', 'War Plague', 'Flanders Grippe', 'Kirghiz Disease', 'Black Man's Disease', 'Hun Flu', 'German Plague', 'Bolshevik Disease' or even the 'Turco-Germanic bacterium criminal entreprise'. These discriminatory epithets reflect the many rumors and theories that quickly spread about the origins of the pathology.“. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 7-avgust.
  61. ↑ 61,0 61,1 Spinney 2018, s. 58.
  62. ↑ „100 Years After: The Name of Death“. History Campus (2018-yil 29-dekabr). 2020-yil 16-avgustda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 16-avgust.
  63. ↑ „How is the adjective 'Spanish' used in other languages?“. El País (2019-yil 5-mart). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 1-avgust. „The use of 'Spanish' can often have negative connotations, with the adjective often unfairly used to describe unwelcome events and problems. The most obvious example is the so-called 'Spanish flu,' a reference to the 1918 influenza pandemic...“.
  64. ↑ „How the Spanish Flu wasn't Spanish at all“. CBC Radio (2020-yil 13-may). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 1-avgust. „Medical professionals and officials in Spain protested. They said the Spanish people were being falsely stigmatized.... If you've ever wondered about the staying power of a brand, the 'Spanish Flu' is a case in point. A full 100 years later, the 'Spanish Flu' is still referenced — and still remains a source of irritation in Spain.“.
  65. ↑ „Fighting words: how war metaphors can trigger racism“ (en-au). The Lighthouse. Macquarie University (2020-yil 7-aprel). — „the names given to this disease in different parts of the world reflected prevailing concerns about certain ethnic groups and ideologies. The disease was called the 'Singapore fever' in Penang and the Bolshevik disease in Poland.“. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 8-avgust.
  66. ↑ Phillips, H.. Black October: The Impact of the Spanish Influenza Epidemic of 1918 on South Africa (en). Government Printer, South Africa, 1990. ISBN 978-0-7970-1580-7. „In one area where Blacks were the first victims, the accusatory term 'Kaffersiekte' was coined; in another district, where the position was reversed, Blacks returned the compliment with, White man's sickness'“ 
  67. ↑ „How the Spanish flu of 1918-20 ravaged Japan“ (en). Japan Today (2020-yil 6-may). — „The first patients in Japan, reported Shukan Gendai (May 2–9), began showing symptoms around April 1918. Initially the disease was referred to as the "Sumo Kaze" (sumo cold) because a contingent of sumo wrestlers contracted it while on a tour of Taiwan. Three well known grapplers, Masagoishi, Choshunada and Wakagiyama, died before they could return from Taiwan. As the contagion spread, the summer sumo tournament, which would have been held on the grounds of Yasukuni shrine, was cancelled.“. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 8-avgust.
  68. ↑ Dionne & Turkmen 2020, ss. 213–230.
  69. ↑ „WHO issues best practices for naming new human infectious diseases“ (en). www.who.int (2015-yil 8-may). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 4-avgust.
  70. ↑ „Pandemic influenza: an evolving challenge“. World Health Organization (2018-yil 22-may). 2020-yil 20-martda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 20-mart.
  71. ↑ „Influenza pandemic of 1918–19“. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2020-yil 4-mart). 2020-yil 20-martda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 20-mart.
  72. ↑ „What the 1918 flu pandemic can teach us about COVID-19, in four charts“. PopSci (2020-yil 18-mart). 2020-yil 24-dekabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 20-mart.
  73. ↑ "What's in a name. Spanish Influenza in sub-Saharan Africa and what local names say about the perception of this pandemic". Spanish 'Flu 1918–1998: Reflections on the Influenza Pandemic of 1918 after 80 Years. Cape Town, South Africa. 1998. https://www.academia.edu/23653135. 
  74. ↑ „Influenza Pandemic (Africa)“. encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net. International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1) (2014-yil 8-oktyabr). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 13-avgust.
  75. ↑ Great Britain Ministry of Health. Report on the Pandemic of Influenza, 1918–19. H.M. Stationery Office, 1920. „There was a high west wind at the time and this was thought to be the carrying agent so that the affliction was called 'the disease of the wind.'“ 
  76. ↑ A Modern Contagion: Imperialism and Public Health in Iran's Age of Cholera (en). JHU Press, 5 February 2019. ISBN 978-1-4214-2722-5. „In Tehran, the disease was called the "illness of the wind" (nakhushi-yi bad) due to its initial occurrence during a strong westerly wind burst and its rapid spread.“ 
  77. ↑ Archives of Internal Medicine. Chicago: American Medical Association, 1919. „As this included the period of the great influenza epidemic when Type IV infections were usually prevalent, it will be seen that the proportion of fixed types among carriers and among cases is not far from the same.“ 
  78. ↑ United States Surgeon-General's Office. Report of the Surgeon-General of the Army to the Secretary of War for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1919, War Department Annual Reports. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1920. „On September 13, 1918, the first cases of the great influenza epidemic were admitted, and during the next 10 weeks over 4,100 patients were admitted.“ 
  79. ↑ Spinney 2018, s. 64: "In … Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) … officials labelled the new affliction 'influenza (vera)', adding the Latin word vera, meaning 'true' … German doctors … called it 'pseudo-influenza'"
  80. ↑ 80,0 80,1 80,2 Spinney 2018, s. 36.
  81. ↑ „1918 Flu (Spanish flu epidemic)“. Avian Bird Flu. 2008-yil 21-mayda asl nusxadan arxivlangan.
  82. ↑ Billings 1997.
  83. ↑ "The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover: Years of Adventure, 1874–1920. (New York: Macmillan Company. 1951. pp. xi, 496.) and Herbert Hoover and the Russian Prisoners of World War I: A Study in Diplomacy and Relief, 1918–1919. By Edward F. Willis. (Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1951. pp. viii, 67.)". The American Historical Review: 12. 2011. doi:10.1086/ahr/57.3.709. ISSN 1937-5239. 
  84. ↑ 84,0 84,1 Spinney 2018, s. 37.
  85. ↑ „Queer Epidemic Sweeps North China; Banks and Silk Stores in Peking Closed – Another Loan Sought from Japan.“. The New York Times (1918-yil 1-iyun). 2020-yil 24-iyunda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 22-iyun.
  86. ↑ Patterson & Pyle 1991.
  87. ↑ „Mortality Statistics 1918: Nineteenth Annual Report“. United States Census Bureau (1920). 2020-yil 11-iyulda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 29-may.
  88. ↑ "The Spanish influenza pandemic in occidental Europe (1918–1920) and victim age". Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 4 (2): 81–89. March 2010. doi:10.1111/j.1750-2659.2009.00125.x. PMID 20167048. PMC 5779284. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=5779284. 
  89. ↑ Spinney 2018, s. 38. 
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