Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus ^{[lower-alpha 1]} (arabcha: الأَنْدَلُس) Pireney yarim orolining musulmonlar boshqaradigan hududi hisoblanadi Ushbu atamani zamonaviy tarixchilar hozirgi Ispaniya va Portugaliyadagi sobiq islom davlatlari uchun qoʻllashadi. ^[1] Oʻzining eng katta geografik qismida yarim orolning ulkan hajmini ^[2] ^[3] ^[4] va hozirgi Fransiya janubidagi Septimaniyaning bir qismini (8-asr) egallagan. Taxminan 100 yil davomida, 9-asrdan boshlab 10-asrgacha bõlgan davrda, al-Andalus oʻz mavjudligini Fraxinetumdan Alp togʻlarigacha bir qator reydlar bilan kengaytirdi. ^[5] ^[6] ^[7] Bu nom 711 va 1492 yillar orasidagi turli vaqtlar mobaynida ushbu hududlarni nazorat qilgan turli musulmon ^[8] ^[9] shtatlarini tasvirlaydi. Bu chegaralar boshida nasroniy Reconquista tomonga oʻzgardi, ^[8] ^[9] ^[10] shunday sõng janubga va nihoyat Granada amirligiga qisqardi.

Musulmonlar Ispaniyani bosib olgandan keyin, al-Andalus, oʻsha paytdagi eng yuqori darajada, zamonaviy Andalusiyaga xos bõlgan beshta maʼmuriy birlikka boʻlingan; Kastiliya va Leon ; Navarre, Aragon, Kataloniya ; Portugaliya va Galisiya ; va Oksitaniyaning Languedok-Russillon hududlari. ^[11]

Siyosiy hudud sifatida u xalifa al-Valid I (711–750) taklifi bilan Umaviylar xalifaligining viloyatini tashkil etdi;bundan sõng ketma-ket Kordova amirligi (tax. 750 – 929); Kordova xalifaligi (929–1031); Kordova xalifaligidan sõng paydo boʻlgan taifa qirolliklari (1009—1110); Almoravid imperiyasi (1085–1145); ikkinchi taifa davri (1140–1203); Almohod xalifaligi (1147–1238); uchinchi taifa davri (1232–1287); va nihoyat Granada Nasrid amirligi (1238–1492)tashkil etildi

Kordova xalifaligi hukmronligi davrida al-Andalus ilm markazi bõlgan. Yevropada ikkinchi eng yirik shahar Kordova shahri hisoblanib Oʻrta er dengizi havzasi, Yevropa va islom olamidagi yetakchi madaniy va iqtisodiy markazlardan biriga aylanib ulgurgan. Islom va Gʻarb ilm-fanining ilgʻor yutuqlari Al-Andalusdan kelgan, xususan trigonometriya (Jobir ibn Aflah), astronomiya (Az-Zarqaliy), jarrohlik (Az-Zahraviy), farmakologiya (Ibn Zuhr), ^[12] va agronomiya (agronomiya) shu kabi qator katta yutuqlar shular jumlasidandir. Ibn Bassal va Abu l-Xayr al-Ishbiliy). Al-Andalus Yevropa va Oʻrta yer dengizi atrofidagi hududlar uchun yirik taʼlim markazi, shuningdek, islom va nasroniy dinlari oʻrtasidagi madaniy va ilmiy almashinuv markaziga aylandi. ^[12]

Xristianlar va yahudiylar davlatga jizya deb ataluvchi maxsus soliq soligʻi tõlashgan, buning evaziga esa oʻz diniga amal qilishda ichki muxtoriyatni taʼminlagan va musulmon hukmdorlar tomonidan bir xil darajada himoyalangan. Tinch-totuv yashash sababli ularning iqtisodiy va ijtimoiy kengaya boshlagan. Musulmonlar tomonidan boshqariladigan yurtda yashovchi musulmon boʻlmaganlar zimmiylar edi. ^[13]

Al-Andalus oʻzining koʻp yillik tarixi davomida shimoldagi xristian qirolliklari bilan ziddiyatga kelib qolishgan. Umaviylar xalifaligi davri tugatilgandan keyin al-Andalus kichik taifa davlatlari va knyazliklariga parchalanib ketdi. Alfonso VI boshchiligida kastiliyaliklarga xristianlarning hujumlari kuchaydi. Almoravid imperiyasi bunga aralashib, mintaqaga nasroniylarning hujumlarini qaytardi, buning natijasida zaif Andalusi taifa hukmdorlarini va al-Andalusni bevosita Almoravid hukmronligi ostida agʻdardi. Keyingi bir yarim asrlarda al-Andalus Marrakeshda joylashgan Murobitlar va Muvahhidlar musulmon imperiyalarining viloyatiga aylantirildi.

Natijada, Pireney yarim orolining shimolidagi xristianlar janubdagi musulmon davlatlari ustidan gʻalaba qozondi. 1085-yilda Alfonso VI Toledo shahrini egallab oldi, buning oxibatida esa musulmonlar qudratining pasayishini boshladi. 1236-yilda Kordova qulashi sababli janubning katta qismi tez fursatda nasroniylar hukmronligiga oʻtdi va Granada amirligi ikki yildan soʻng Kastiliya qirolligining irmoqli davlatiga aylandi. 1249-yilda Portugaliya rekonkistasi Afonso III tomonidan Algarveni zabt etish bilan tugallandi sõngra Granada Pireney yarim orolidagi oxirgi musulmon davlati sifatida qolib ketdi. Vanihoyat, 1492-yil 2-yanvarda ^[14] Amir Muhammad XII Granada amirligini Kastiliya qirolichasi Izabella I ga topshirib, yarimorolning xristian rekonkistasini yakunladi.

Manbalar

↑ Gómez-Rivas, Camilo. Law and the Islamization of Morocco under the Almoravids: The Fatwās of Ibn Rushd al-Jadd to the Far Maghrib. Brill, 21 November 2014 — 1, note 3-bet. ISBN 978-90-04-27984-1.
↑ Irvin, Dale T.. History of the World Christian Movement: Volume 1: Earliest Christianity To 1453 (en). A&C Black, 2002 — 30-bet. ISBN 978-0-567-08866-6.
↑ Luis Corral, Fernando „The Christian Frontier against al-Andalus (Muslim Spain): concept and politics during the reigns of King Fernando I of Castile and Leon and his successors until 1230“, . Walls, Ramparts, and Lines of Demarcation: Selected Studies from Antiquity to Modern Times Natalie Fryde: . LIT Verlag Münster, 2009 — 67-bet. ISBN 978-3-8258-9478-8.
↑ García Fitz, Francisco. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology (en) Rogers: . Oxford University Press, 2010 — 325–326-bet. ISBN 978-0-19-533403-6. „Barely eight years after the initial crossing of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Muslims had come to dominate almost the entire Peninsula with the exception of a few northern mountainous regions along Cantabrian and Pyrenean ranges. In these areas, indigenous populations, including the Asturians, Cantabrians, and Basques, who had been brought under Visigothic control, were able to escape Islamic domination.“
↑ Versteegh, Kees (1990-01-01). "The Arab Presence in France and Switzerland in the 10th Century" (en). Arabica 37 (3): 359–388. doi:10.1163/157005890X00041. ISSN 1570-0585.
↑ Wenner, Manfred W. (August 1980). "The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe" (en). International Journal of Middle East Studies 12 (1): 59–79. doi:10.1017/S0020743800027136. ISSN 1471-6380. https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-middle-east-studies_1980-08_12_1/page/n60.
↑ Some authors mention bands penetrating as far north as Sankt Gallen, where they sacked the monastery in 939. Cf. Ekkehard, Casus S. Galli, IV, 15 (pp. 137f); Lévi-Provençal (1950:60); Reinaud (1964:149f).
↑ ^8,0 ^8,1 "Para los autores árabes medievales, el término Al-Andalus designa la totalidad de las zonas conquistadas – siquiera temporalmente – por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, España y Francia" („For medieval Arab authors, Al-Andalus designated all the conquered areas – even temporarily – by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Spain, Portugal and France“), García de Cortázar, José Ángel. V Semana de Estudios Medievales: Nájera, 1 al 5 de agosto de 1994, Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 1995, p. 52.
↑ ^9,0 ^9,1 Benito Ruano, Eloy. Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media. Real Academia de la Historia, 2002 — 79-bet. ISBN 978-84-95983-06-0. „Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania")“
↑ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Esposito, John L., New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. DOI:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001. ISBN 0195125584. OCLC 50280143.
↑ O'Callaghan, Joseph F.. A History of Medieval Spain. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983-10-31 — 142-bet. ISBN 0801468728. OCLC 907117391.
↑ ^12,0 ^12,1 Covington, Richard (2007). Arndt, Robert. ed. "Rediscovering Arabic Science". Saudi Aramco World (Aramco Services Company) 58 (3): 2–16. http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200703/rediscovering.arabic.science.htm.
↑ Lewis, Bernard. The Jews of Islam; Meyrick, Fredrick. The Doctrine of the Church of England on the Holy Communion. NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 14. "Under the ruling Caliph (the descendant of Mohammed – the prophet of G–d on earth), the Jews were able to preserve their rites and traditions. Peaceful coexistence led to their economic and social expansion. Their status was that of Dhimmis, non-Muslims living in a land governed by Muslims. The Jews had limited autonomy, but full rights to practice their religion, as well as full protection by their Muslim rulers, but this did not occur for free. There was a specific tax called the jizya that Dhimmis had to pay to receive these benefits. Having its origin in the Qur’an, it states Dhimmis who did not pay this tax, should either convert to Islam or face the death penalty (Qur’an 9, 29). This tax, higher than the tax Muslims had to pay, was in several occasions one of the most important sources of income for the kingdom. The jizya was not only a tax, but also a symbolic expression of subordination (Lewis 14). „It is a common misapprehension that the holy war meant that the Muslims gave their opponents a choice 'between Islam and the sword'. This was sometimes the case, but only when the opponents were polytheists and idol-worshippers. For Jews, Christians, and other 'People of the Book', there was a third possibility, they might become a 'protected group', paying a tax or tribute to the Muslims but enjoying internal autonomy“ (Watt 144).
↑ Pigna. „La Reconquista española“ (es). El Historiador (2018-yil 6-fevral). 2015-yil 8-dekabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan.

Manba xatosi: <ref> tags exist for a group named "lower-alpha", but no corresponding <references group="lower-alpha"/> tag was found

[Gómez-Rivas2014-2] Gómez-Rivas, Camilo. Law and the Islamization of Morocco under the Almoravids: The Fatwās of Ibn Rushd al-Jadd to the Far Maghrib. Brill, 21 November 2014 — 1, note 3-bet. ISBN 978-90-04-27984-1.

[IrvinSunquist2002-3] Irvin, Dale T.. History of the World Christian Movement: Volume 1: Earliest Christianity To 1453 (en). A&C Black, 2002 — 30-bet. ISBN 978-0-567-08866-6.

[FrydeReitz2009-4] Luis Corral, Fernando „The Christian Frontier against al-Andalus (Muslim Spain): concept and politics during the reigns of King Fernando I of Castile and Leon and his successors until 1230“, . Walls, Ramparts, and Lines of Demarcation: Selected Studies from Antiquity to Modern Times Natalie Fryde: . LIT Verlag Münster, 2009 — 67-bet. ISBN 978-3-8258-9478-8.

[García-Fitz2010-5] García Fitz, Francisco. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology (en) Rogers: . Oxford University Press, 2010 — 325–326-bet. ISBN 978-0-19-533403-6. „Barely eight years after the initial crossing of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Muslims had come to dominate almost the entire Peninsula with the exception of a few northern mountainous regions along Cantabrian and Pyrenean ranges. In these areas, indigenous populations, including the Asturians, Cantabrians, and Basques, who had been brought under Visigothic control, were able to escape Islamic domination.“

[6] Versteegh, Kees (1990-01-01). "The Arab Presence in France and Switzerland in the 10th Century" (en). Arabica 37 (3): 359–388. doi:10.1163/157005890X00041. ISSN 1570-0585.

[7] Wenner, Manfred W. (August 1980). "The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe" (en). International Journal of Middle East Studies 12 (1): 59–79. doi:10.1017/S0020743800027136. ISSN 1471-6380. https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-middle-east-studies_1980-08_12_1/page/n60.

[8] Some authors mention bands penetrating as far north as Sankt Gallen, where they sacked the monastery in 939. Cf. Ekkehard, Casus S. Galli, IV, 15 (pp. 137f); Lévi-Provençal (1950:60); Reinaud (1964:149f).

[árabesmedievales-9] 8,0 ^8,1 "Para los autores árabes medievales, el término Al-Andalus designa la totalidad de las zonas conquistadas – siquiera temporalmente – por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, España y Francia" („For medieval Arab authors, Al-Andalus designated all the conquered areas – even temporarily – by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Spain, Portugal and France“), García de Cortázar, José Ángel. V Semana de Estudios Medievales: Nájera, 1 al 5 de agosto de 1994, Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 1995, p. 52.

[Ruano(Spain)2002-10] 9,0 ^9,1 Benito Ruano, Eloy. Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media. Real Academia de la Historia, 2002 — 79-bet. ISBN 978-84-95983-06-0. „Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania")“

[Oxford-11] The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Esposito, John L., New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. DOI:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001. ISBN 0195125584. OCLC 50280143.

[12] O'Callaghan, Joseph F.. A History of Medieval Spain. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983-10-31 — 142-bet. ISBN 0801468728. OCLC 907117391.

[rediscScience-13] 12,0 ^12,1 Covington, Richard (2007). Arndt, Robert. ed. "Rediscovering Arabic Science". Saudi Aramco World (Aramco Services Company) 58 (3): 2–16. http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200703/rediscovering.arabic.science.htm.

[14] Lewis, Bernard. The Jews of Islam; Meyrick, Fredrick. The Doctrine of the Church of England on the Holy Communion. NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 14. "Under the ruling Caliph (the descendant of Mohammed – the prophet of G–d on earth), the Jews were able to preserve their rites and traditions. Peaceful coexistence led to their economic and social expansion. Their status was that of Dhimmis, non-Muslims living in a land governed by Muslims. The Jews had limited autonomy, but full rights to practice their religion, as well as full protection by their Muslim rulers, but this did not occur for free. There was a specific tax called the jizya that Dhimmis had to pay to receive these benefits. Having its origin in the Qur’an, it states Dhimmis who did not pay this tax, should either convert to Islam or face the death penalty (Qur’an 9, 29). This tax, higher than the tax Muslims had to pay, was in several occasions one of the most important sources of income for the kingdom. The jizya was not only a tax, but also a symbolic expression of subordination (Lewis 14). „It is a common misapprehension that the holy war meant that the Muslims gave their opponents a choice 'between Islam and the sword'. This was sometimes the case, but only when the opponents were polytheists and idol-worshippers. For Jews, Christians, and other 'People of the Book', there was a third possibility, they might become a 'protected group', paying a tax or tribute to the Muslims but enjoying internal autonomy“ (Watt 144).

[15] Pigna. „La Reconquista española“ (es). El Historiador (2018-yil 6-fevral). 2015-yil 8-dekabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan.

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