Vikipediya

Insoniyatning birinchi koʻchishi

Insoniyatning birinchi migratsiyasi-eng qadimgi odamlar guruhlari birinchi marta Afrikadan ko'chib,qo'ngan va butun dunyo bo'ylab tarqalib,Antarktidadan tashqari dunyoning barcha qismlariga ommaviy migratsiyadan boshlangan.Bu migratsiyaning umumiy sxemasi va ayrim xususiyatlari topilgan boyliklar, madaniy meroslar, aholi punktlari, DNK va tillarning tarqalishi asosida turli xil artefaktlar asosida aniqlanadi.

Mavjud ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, taxminan 2 million yil oldin,Homo erectus (Homo erectus) Levant koridori orqali Afrikani tark etib,dunyoning barcha burchaklariga tarqala boshlagan. [1][2]

Taxminan 500 000 yil oldin bu birinchi mushukka Homo heidelbergensis (Homo heidelbergensis) ko'chib o'tdi.Ular odatda Denisovalılar va Homo Neandertallarning ajdodlari hisoblanadilar.Aytishlaricha, birinchi insonlar "qit'alarning suv bosgan ko'priklaridan o'tganlar".(History Alive, na7shr. 2004, TCI)

Hatto Afrikada ham Homo sapiens 300 000 yil avval shakllanish davrida parchalana boshlaydi.[3][4] _ _ _ Okeaniyagacha bo'lgan yo'lni bosib o'tdi [5] Zamonaviy odam ham taxminan 40 000 yil oldin Yevropaga tarqala boshlagan.[6][7]

Birinchi Evrosiyo Homo Sapiens Isroil va Gretsiyada topilgan,ular taxminan 194,000-177,000 va 210,000 yil oldin bo'lgan.Bu qoldiqlar keyinchalik mahalliy neandertallar tomonidan zabt etilgan birinchi homo sapiensning muvaffaqiyatsizligidan dalolat bergan bo'lishi mumkin.[8]

Migrant Zamonaviy odam ko'pincha turli xil mahalliy arxaik xalqlar bilan bog'langan,ularning ulushi 10 foizdan kam bo'lgan.Qadimgi xalqlar Yevropa va Osiyo (Neandertallar) va Janubiy Osiyo va Melaneziya(Denisovlar),shuningdek, G'arbiy va Janubiy Afrikada aralashib,birlashdilar. Aralashning nisbati joylashuvga qarab o'zgaradi, lekin hamma uchun bir xildir.Zamonaviy odamning ulushi 10% dan kam edi: Evroosiyoda taxminan 1-4% va Melaneziyada atigi 4-6%.[9][10]

So'nggi muzlik cho'qqisidan so'ng,Shimoliy Yevrosiyo aholisi 20 ming yil oldin Amerikaga ko'chib o'tgan.Shimoliy Yevrosiyo aholisi esa 12000 yil oldin,Golosen davridan keyin joylashdilar.Paleo-Eskimos 4000 yil oldin Arktika Kanada va Grenlandiyaga yetib borgan. Polineziya 2000 yil oldin Avstraliya ekspansiyasining so'nggi to'lqini paytida joylashgan.

Birinchi odamlar ( Homo Sapiensdan oldin)

tahrir

Birinchi odamlar 3 million yil oldin avstralopiteklardan paydo bo'lgan va asosan Sharqiy Afrikada,ayniqsa Keniyaning qo'pol tekisliklarida topilgan eng qadimgi tosh asboblar ham u yerda topilgan.Biroq,Xitoyning Shanxay shahrida tosh asboblar yaqinda topila boshlandi.Xitoydagi bu tosh asboblarning yoshi 2,12 million yil bo'lib,Gruziyadagi 300 000 yillik Dmanisi xazinalaridan oshib ketadi,bu Afrikadan tashqarida topilgan inson tomonidan yaratilgan eng qadimgi ma'lumotlardir. [11]

Homo Erectus

tahrir

Bundan 3 yoki 2 million yil oldin gomos (odamlar) Sharqiy va Janubiy Afrikaga tarqaldi,lekin ular hali G'arbiy Afrikaga etib bormagan edi.Taxminan 1,9 million yil oldin,Homo erectus Afrikadagi Levantin koridori orqali ko'chib o'tdi va Afrika shoxi ( Somali yarim oroli ) va Evrosiyoga tarqaldi.Bu o'tish 1,9 million yil avvalgi vaziyat bilan bog'liq,deb aytadiganlar bor,Sahroi nasos deb ataladi.

Homo erectus qadimgi dunyoning barcha mintaqalarida keng tarqalgan bo'lib,Janubiy Osiyoga qadar yetib boradi. Uning joylashuvi Oldovan tosh sanoati bilan bog'liq bo'lib, 1,3 million yil oldin uning eng shimoliy qismi 40-parallelga etib kelgan (Sharqiy Osiyodagi Xiao Chenglian tosh asboblari).Afrikadan tashqaridagi bu birinchi migratsiyaning asosiy nuqtalari Pokistondagi Rivat (~2 million yil?), Levantdagi Ubeidiya (1,5 million) va Kavkazdagi Dmanisi (1,81 ± 0,03 million, p = 0,05 [12]) edi.

Nivan havzasida topilgan tosh artefaktlarga ko'ra,odamlar Xitoyda 1,66 million yil oldin joylasha boshlagan.[13]Shansi provinsiyasidagi Xixudu arxeologik yodgorligi taxminan 1,27 million yil avval Homo Erectus tomonidan ishlatilgan deb ishoniladi. [14]

Homo erectus Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoga (Java) taxminan 1,7 million yil oldin (Meganthropus) etib kelgan va G'arbiy Yevropaga taxminan 1,2 million yil avval joylashgan (Atapuerka). [15]

Robert J.Bednarik (Robert G.Bednarik) Homo erectusning salda suzib yurganini taxmin qiladi. [16]

Homo Erectusdan keyin

tahrir
 
500 000 yil oldin Denisovans va Neandertallarning kengayishi
 
Homo-neandertal populyatsiyalari Evropada, Kavkazda (ko'k), Yaqin Sharqda (Toksari), O'zbekistonda (yashil) va Oltoy mintaqasida (binafsha rang) tarqalgan.

Bir million yil oldin Homo erectus parchalanib,yangi inson turlariga bo'linishni boshladi.Homo erectus vaqtinchalik tur edi,lekin u yo'qolib qolmadi,uning "keyingi davomi" taksonomik konventsiyalar masalasidir.Homa erectusning keyingi shakllari kamida 0,5 milliondan 143 000 yilgacha yashagan deb taxmin qilish mumkin.[17]Ular taxminan 800 000 yil oldin Evropada Homo antisedentlari va taxminan 600 000 yil oldin Afrikada Homo Geydelberg deb tasniflangan turlarni hosil qilgan.Homo Geydelberg Sharqiy Afrika boʻylab tarqalib,u yerda Homo rhodesiens (Homo rhodesiensis) paydo boʻlgan,keyinroq Yevroosiyoda homo neandertallar va homo denisovanlar paydo boʻlgan.

Homo Heidelberg, Homo Neandertallar va Denisovanlar 50-parallelning shimoliga tarqaldi.2011-yilda Uralskdagi Komi Respublikasining Byzovaya qismida olib borilgan qazishmalarga ko'ra,Homo sapiensning birinchi ko'chmanchilari uchun joy ochgan neandertallar Arktika chegarasiga 32 ming yil oldin etib kelishgan.[18]

Etarlicha fotoalbom topilmagan bo'lsa-da,bu vaqt ichida boshqa Arkaik inson turlari Afrika bo'ylab tarqaldi.Ularning ko'rinishi Afrika populyatsiyalari genomida kuzatilgan zamonaviy odam bilan o'zaro ta'sir izlari bilan izohlanadi. [10] [19][20][21] 2013-yilda Janubiy Afrikada topilgan va 300 000 yil avval yaratilgan Homo naledi ana shunday arxaik odam turining fotoalbomi hisoblanadi.[22]

Neandertallar Yaqin Sharq va Yevropaga,denisovlar esa Markaziy Osiyo va Sharqiy Osiyoga,shuningdek,Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo va Okeaniyaga tarqaldi.Haqiqiy ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, denisovliklar O'rta Osiyoda neandertallar bilan birlashgan. [23]

Homo Sapiens

tahrir

Afrikaga tarqalib ketishi

tahrir
 
Birinchi zamonaviy odamning DNKning mitoxondrial haplogrupiga o'tishi.

Taxminan 300 000 yil avval 2017-yilda Marokashdagi Jebel Irhudda topilgan artefaktlar va artefaktlarga termoluminesans to'g'ri kelganida,birinchi inson turi Homo Sapiens tarix bosqichiga kirganligi aytiladi.[24][25]Janubiy Afrikaning Florisbad shahridan topilgan va Homa Sapiensga tegishli ekanligi aytilgan Florisbad bosh suyagining yoshi 259 000 yil.[26][27][28]Ilgari,1967-1974 yillarda Efiopiyadagi Omo milliy bogʻidan qazilgan Omo qoldiqlari 200 000 yoshda boʻlib, uzoq vaqtdan beri zamonaviy insonning eng qadimgi anatomik qoldiqlari sifatida eʼtirof etilgan. [29]

2019-yil sentabr oyida olimlar 260 ta kompyuter tomografiyasi asosida kompyuterlashtirilgan skanerlash natijalarini eʼlon qilishdi.Bunda Sharqiy va Janubiy Afrikadagi 260 ming populyatsiyani birlashtirgan holda,insonning soʻnggi umumiy ajdodidan Homo sapiensgacha boʻlgan virtual bosh suyagi shakllari tahlil qilindi va 350 000 yil oldin paydo bo'lgan deb taxmin qilishdi.[30][31]

2019-yil iyul oyida antropologlar Gretsiya janubidagi Apidima g‘orida 210 ming yillik Homo Sapienis qoldiqlari topilgani haqida xabar berishdi.Bu Evropada topilgan Homa sapiensdan taxminan 150 000 yil oldin.[32][33][34][35]

Birinchi zamonaviy odam paydo bo'lganidan beri u G'arbiy Evrosiyo,Markaziy,G'arbiy va Janubiy Afrikaga tarqaldi.Yevroosiyoga birinchi kengayish davom etmagandek tuyuldi[23],oʻsha davrda Janubiy va Markaziy Afrikaga kengayish natijasida aholi turar-joylari parchalana boshladi.Afrikaning Sahroi Kabirdagi birinchi zamonaviy odamning kengayishi,taxminan 130 000 yil oldin Acheulean, Foresmit va Fauresmit madaniyatining tugashiga hissa qo'shganga o'xshaydi.Biroq,birinchi zamonaviy odamning, ayniqsa G'arbiy Afrikada, 12 000 yil oldin davom etgan birga yashashi haqida ko'p bahs-munozaralar mavjud. [36]

Taxminan 260 000 yil oldin paydo bo'lgan zamonaviy Koisan xalqining ajdodlari Janubiy Afrikaga 150 000 yil oldin ko'chib o'tishgan , keyin 130 000 yil oldin, MIS 5 - megaqurg'oqchilik boshlanganda, Afrikada ikkita aholi klasteri mavjud edi: Afrikaning janubidagi mt-DNK haplogruplari, Xoysan xalqining ajdodlari va markaziy / sharqiy Afrikadagi L1-6 haplogruplari, ajdodlari boshqalar

Aftidan,oziq-ovqat izlab Markaziy Afrikaga yoyilgan afrikalik pigmeyalar u yerga taxminan 130-60 ming yil avval joylashgan.[37][38][39][40][41]

G'arbiy Afrikadagi vaziyatni fotoalbomlarning kamdan-kamligi tufayli tushuntirish qiyin.Homo sapiens g'arbiy Sahel mintaqasiga 130 000 yil oldin etib kelgan ko'rinadi va ularning G'arbiy Afrika tropiklari bilan aloqasi keyingi davrlarga borib taqaladi.Afrikaning boshqa qismlaridan farqli o'laroq,arxaik o'rta tosh davri juda uzoq davom etgan (12 000 yil oldin,Xolokost chegarasi sifatida tanilgan).Bu shuni anglatadiki,arxaik odam uzoq vaqt yashagan va G'arbiy Afrikada ular Homo sapiens bilan aralashgan. [36]

Shimoliy Afrikaga birinchi tarqalish

tahrir

Homo Sapiensning ko'payishning birinchi to'lqini 185 000 yil oldin Levant va Evropaga 130 000-115 000 yil oldin ko'chib o'tgan.[42]

Manbalar

tahrir
  1. ↑ Kuo, Lily (10 December 2017)."Early humans migrated out of Africa much earlier than we thought". Quartz. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
  2. ↑ Kuo, Lily (10 December 2017)."Алғашқы адамның Африкадан көшуі біз ойлағаннан ерте басталған". Quartz. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
  3. ↑ https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/early/2017/09/27/science.aao6266/F3.large.jpg
  4. ↑ journal Stringer: What makes a modern human. Nature, 2012 pages 33–35
  5. ↑ journal Schlebusch: Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago. journal Science, November 2017, pages 652–655. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/358/6363/652.full
  6. ↑ Zimmer, Carl (4 July 2017). "In Neanderthal DNA, Signs of a Mysterious Human Migration". New York Times. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
  7. ↑ Posth, Cosimo; et al. (4 July 2017)."Deeply divergent archaic mitochondrial genome provides lower time boundary for African gene flow into Neanderthals". Nature Communications.doi:10.1038/ncomms16046. Retrieved4 July 2017.
  8. ↑ Callaway, Ewen (2018). "Israeli fossils are the oldest modern humans ever found outside of Africa". Nature 554 (7690): 15–16. 
  9. ↑ Lohse, K; Frantz, L.A.F. (2014). "Neandertal Admixture in Eurasia Confirmed by Maximum-Likelihood Analysis of Three Genomes". Genetics 196 (4): 1241–1251. https://www.genetics.org/content/196/4/1241.short. 
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 Admixture of an unknown archaic hominin in Sub-Saharan African hunter-gatherer popultations was estimated at about 2% (Hammer et al. (2011)).Hammer, M.F.; Woerner, A.E.; Mendez, F.L.; Watkins, J.C.; Wall, J.D. (2011). "Genetic evidence for archaic admixture in Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (37): 15123–15128. 
  11. ↑ Zhu, Zhaoyu; Dennell, Robin; Huang, Weiwen; Wu, Yi; Qiu, Shifan; Yang, Shixia; Rao, Zhiguo; Hou, Yamei et al. (2018). "Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago". Nature 559 (7715): 608–612. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4. PMID 29995848. 
  12. ↑ Garcia, T.; Féraud, G.; Falguères, C.; de Lumley, H.; Perrenoud, C.; Lordkipanidze, D. (2010). "Earliest human remains in Eurasia: New 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Dmanisi hominid-bearing levels, Georgia". Quaternary Geochronology 5 (4): 443–451. 
  13. ↑ R. Zhu et al. (2004), New evidence on the earliest human presence at high northern latitudes in northeast Asia.
  14. ↑ Rixiang Zhu; Zhisheng An; Richard Pott; Kenneth A. Hoffman (June 2003). "Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China". Earth-Science Reviews 61 (3–4): 191–361. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00110-1. Archived from the original on 2011-07-24. https://web.archive.org/web/20110724001314/http://www.paleomag.net/members/rixiangzhu/Earth-Sci%20Review.pdf. 
  15. ↑ Hopkin M. „Fossil find is oldest European yet“. Nature News (2008-yil 26-mart).
  16. ↑ Bednarik RG (2003). "Seafaring in the Pleistocene". Cambridge Archaeological Journal 13 (1): 41–66. 

    ScienceNews summary (Wayback Machine saytida 2008-04-22 sanasida arxivlangan)
  17. ↑ Indriati, E; Swisher CC III; Lepre C; Quinn RL; Suriyanto RA (2011). "The Age of the 20 Meter Solo River Terrace, Java, Indonesia and the Survival of Homo erectus in Asia". PLoS ONE 6 (6): e21562. 
  18. ↑ Callaway, Ewen „An Arctic refuge for Neanderthals?“. nature.com (2011-yil 12-may). 2019-yil 28-iyulda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2019-yil 8-may.
  19. ↑ Xu, D. (2017). "Archaic Hominin Introgression in Africa Contributes to Functional Salivary MUC7 Genetic Variation". Molecular Biology and Evolution 34 (10): 2704–2715. 
  20. ↑ Callaway, E. (26 July 2012). "Hunter-gatherer genomes a trove of genetic diversity". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2012.11076. http://www.nature.com/news/hunter-gatherer-genomes-a-trove-of-genetic-diversity-1.11076. 
  21. ↑ journal: Lachance J. Vernot, B. Elbers, C.C. Ferwerda, B. Froment, A. Bodo, J.M. Evolutionary History and Adaptation from High-Coverage Whole-Genome Sequences of Diverse African Hunter-Gatherers, journal, 2012, pages 457–469, 2012.07.009
  22. ↑ Dirks, Paul HGM; Roberts, Eric M.; Hilbert-Wolf, Hannah; Kramers, Jan D.; Hawks, John; Dosseto, Anthony; Duval, Mathieu; Elliott, Marina et al. (2017-05-09). "The age of Homo naledi and associated sediments in the Rising Star Cave, South Africa". eLife 6. doi:10.7554/eLife.24231. PMID 28483040. PMC 5423772. https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/24231/elife-24231-v1.pdf. 
  23. ↑ 23,0 23,1 Lopez, Saioa; van Dorp, Lucy; Hellenthal, Garrett (2016). "Human Dispersal Out of Africa: A Lasting Debate". Evolutionary Bioinformatics 11s2 (Suppl 2): 57–68. 
  24. ↑ "Here we report the ages, determined by thermoluminescence dating, of fire-heated flint artefacts obtained from new excavations at the Middle Stone Age site of Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, which are directly associated with newly discovered remains of H. sapiens. A weighted average age places these Middle Stone Age artefacts and fossils at 315±34 thousand years ago. Support is obtained through the recalculated uranium series with electron spin resonance date of 286±32 thousand years ago for a tooth from the Irhoud 3 hominin mandible." David Richter (8 June 2017). "The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age". Nature 546 (7657): 293–296. 
  25. ↑ "Earliest evidence of modern human life history in North African early Homo sapiens". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 (15): 6128–33. April 2007. 
  26. ↑ Stringer, C. (2016). "The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 371 (1698): 20150237. PMID 27298468. PMC 4920294. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=4920294. 
  27. ↑ Sample, Ian. „Oldest Homo sapiens bones ever found shake foundations of the human story“. The Guardian (2017-yil 7-iyun). Qaraldi: 2017-yil 7-iyun.
  28. ↑ Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Ben-Ncer, Abdelouahed; Bailey, Shara E.; Freidline, Sarah E.; Neubauer, Simon; Skinner, Matthew M.; Bergmann, Inga; Le Cabec, Adeline et al. (2017). "New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens". Nature 546 (7657): 289–292. http://kar.kent.ac.uk/62267/1/Submission_288356_1_art_file_2637492_j96j1b.pdf. 
  29. ↑ Mcdougall, I.; Brown, H.; Fleagle, G. (Feb 2005). "Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia". Nature 433 (7027): 733–736. 
  30. ↑ Zimmer, Carl. „Scientists Find the Skull of Humanity's Ancestor — on a Computer - By comparing fossils and CT scans, researchers say they have reconstructed the skull of the last common forebear of modern humans.“. The New York Times (2019-yil 10-sentyabr). Qaraldi: 2019-yil 31-dekabr.
  31. ↑ Mounier, Aurélien; Lahr, Marta (2019). "Deciphering African late middle Pleistocene hominin diversity and the origin of our species". Nature Communications 10 (1): 3406. 
  32. ↑ Zimmer, Carl. „A Skull Bone Discovered in Greece May Alter the Story of Human Prehistory“. The New York Times (2019-yil 10-iyul). Qaraldi: 2019-yil 31-dekabr.
  33. ↑ Staff. „'Oldest remains' outside Africa reset human migration clock“. Phys.org (2019-yil 10-iyul). Qaraldi: 2019-yil 10-iyul.
  34. ↑ Delson, Eric (10 July 2019). "An early dispersal of modern humans from Africa to Greece – Analysis of two fossils from a Greek cave has shed light on early hominins in Eurasia. One fossil is the earliest known specimen of Homo sapiens found outside Africa; the other is a Neanderthal who lived 40,000 years later.". Nature 571 (7766): 487–488. 
  35. ↑ Harvati, Katerina (10 July 2019). "Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia". Nature 571 (7766): 500–504. 
  36. ↑ 36,0 36,1 Scerri, Eleanor (2017). "The Stone Age Archaeology of West Africa". African History. https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-137. 
  37. ↑ "Patterns of Ancestry, Signatures of Natural Selection, and Genetic Association with Stature in Western African Pygmies". PLoS Genetics 8 (4): e1002641. 2012. 
  38. ↑ "Genetic Variation and Recent Positive Selection in Worldwide Human Populations: Evidence from Nearly 1 Million SNPs". PLoS ONE 4 (11): e7888. 2009. 
  39. ↑ "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans". Science 324 (5930): 1035–1044. 2009. doi:10.1126/science.1172257. PMID 19407144.  (Supplementary Data)
  40. ↑ "Maternal traces of deep common ancestry and asymmetric gene flow between Pygmy hunter–gatherers and Bantu-speaking farmers". PNAS 105 (5): 1596–601. 2008.  fig. 3.
  41. ↑ "We studied the branching history of Pygmy hunter–gatherers and agricultural populations from Africa and estimated separation times and gene flow between these populations. The model identified included the early divergence of the ancestors of Pygmy hunter–gatherers and farming populations ~60,000 years ago, followed by a split of the Pygmies' ancestors into the Western and Eastern Pygmy groups ~20,000 years ago." Patin E, Laval G, Barreiro LB, Salas A, Semino O, Santachiara-Benerecetti S, Kidd KK, Kidd JR, Van der Veen L, Hombert JM, Gessain A, Froment A, Bahuchet S, Heyer E, Quintana-Murci L. Inferring the Demographic History of African Farmers and Pygmy Hunter–Gatherers Using a Multilocus Resequencing Data Set. "Genetics"
  42. ↑ "The earliest modern humans outside Africa". Science 359 (6374): 456–459. 26 Jan 2018.  
"https://uz.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Insoniyatning_birinchi_koʻchishi&oldid=5180994" dan olindi