Yevropada islom
Islom Yevropada nasroniylikdan keyin turuvchi ikkinchi eng katta dindir[1]. Garchi Gʻarbiy Yevropadagi musulmon jamoalarining aksariyati yaqinda tashkil topgan boʻlsa-da[2], Bolqon, Kavkaz, Qrim va Volga boʻyida koʻp asrlik musulmon jamiyatlari mavjud[3][4][5][6]. „Yevropa Musulmonlari“ atamasi Bolqondagi musulmonlar koʻp boʻlgan mamlakatlarga (Albaniya, Bosniya va Gersegovina, Kosovo va Turkiya)[7], hamda Sharqiy Yevropadagi ozchiligi musulmonlardan tashkil topgan mamlakatlarga (Bolgariya, Chernogoriya, Shimoliy Makedoniya)[8], va Rossiyaning baʼzi respublikalariga[3][4][5][7] nisbatan ishlatilgan[3][4][7].
Islom 7-asrda musulmonlarning Forsni bosib olishi orqali Kavkazga tarqaldi va 8–10-asrlarda Umaviylar Ispaniyani bosib olganidan keyin tezlik bilan tarqalib Janubiy Yevropaga kirdi. Musulmon siyosiy tuzilmalari oʻrta asrlarda hozirgi Ispaniya, Portugaliya, Sitsiliya va Maltada mavjud boʻlgan[9]. Bu hududlardagi musulmon aholi xristianlikni qabul qilgan yoki 15-asr oxiriga kelib nasroniy hukmdorlari tomonidan chiqarib yuborilgan (Qarang: Rekonkista)[9]. Usmonli imperiyasi 14–15-asrlarda Serbiya imperiyasi, Bolgariya imperiyasi va Vizantiya imperiyasining qolgan barcha hududlariga bostirib kirish va bosib olish yoʻli bilan Janubi-Sharqiy Yevropada yanada kengaydi va oʻzining siyosiy qudratini mustahkamladi[9]. Asrlar davomida Usmonli imperiyasi 1922-yilda magʻlubiyatga uchragunga qadar deyarli barcha Yevropa hududlarini asta-sekin tark etdi. Islom Sharqiy Yevropada Volga Bulgarlari, Kuman-Qipchoqlar, keyinroq Oltin Oʻrda va uning xonliklari, ruslar tomonidan „tatarlar“ deb atalgan turli musulmon aholiga ega boʻlgan xonliklarning oʻzgarishi orqali tarqaldi. Yevropadagi tarixiy ahamiyatga ega musulmon aholi orasida Gorani, Torbeshi, Pomaklar, Bosnyaklar, Musulmon Albanlar, Cham Albanlari, Yunon musulmonlari, Vallahadlar, Musulmon Romanlar, Bolqon turklari, Kiprlik turklari, Krit turklari , Yörüklar, Volga tatarlari, Qrim tatarlari, Qozoqlari, Gajallar va Megleno-Ruminlar[6][10] bor.
20-asr oxiri va 21-asr boshlarida koʻp sonli musulmonlar Gʻarbiy Yevropaga koʻchib keldilar[2]. 2010-yilga kelib, Yevropada taxminan 44 million musulmon (6 foiz), shu jumladan Yevropa Ittifoqida (3,8 foiz) taxminan 19 million musulmon yashagan[11]. 2030-yilga kelib ular 8% yoki 58 millionni tashkil etishi taxmin qilinmoqda[11]. Ular koʻpincha Yevropa mamlakatlaridagi islomiy terrorchilik xurujlari[12][13], Shaytoniy Oyatlar bahsi[14], Daniyadagi multfilmlar ishi[12], Islomiy liboslar haqidagi bahslar[14], musulmonlarning Yevropa madaniyati va liberal qadriyatlariga tahdid deb hisoblaydigan oʻng qanot populistik harakatlar va partiyalarni qoʻllab-quvvatlash kuchaygan[13][14]. Bunday tadbirlar, shuningdek, globallashuv, multikulturalizm, islomofobiya, musulmonlar va boshqa diniy guruhlar oʻrtasidagi munosabatlar va populistik siyosiy mavzularida davom etayotgan munozaralarni kuchaytirdi[13][14][15].
Tarixi
tahrirYevropadagi musulmon aholisi juda xilma-xil tarixga turlicha kelib chiqishga ega[3][4][5]. Bugungi kunda Yevropaning musulmonlar yashaydigan hududlari Bolqon (Albaniya, Bosniya va Gersegovina, Kosovo va Turkiyaning Yevropa qismi), Shimoliy Kavkaz va Idil-Ural mintaqasidagi ayrim Rossiya respublikalari hamda Qozogʻistonning Yevropa qismida joylashgan[3][4][5]. Bu jamoalar asosan musulmon diniga eʼtiqod qiluvchi mahalliy yevropaliklardan iborat boʻlib, ularning diniy anʼanalari bir necha yuz yillik oʻrta asrlarga borib taqaladi[3][4][5]. Turkiya, Ozarbayjon va Qozogʻiston kabi transkontinental davlatlarning aholisi ham musulmonlardan tashkil topgan.
Gʻarbiy Yevropa va Oʻrta yer dengizi mintaqasi
tahrirArab musulmonlarining Yevropaga yurishlari milodiy 7-asrda islom paydo boʻlganidan koʻp oʻtmay boshlandi. Milodiy 632-yilda Muhammad vafotidan koʻp oʻtmay, uning jamoasi xalifa unvonini keltirib chiqaradigan yangi rahbar tayinlashi kerak edi (arabcha: خَليفة Muhammadning baʼzi eng yaqin sahobalari) va ularning avlodlari asrlar davomida xalifalik oʻrnini egallashga daʼvo qilganlar[16][17][18]. Undan keyin kelgan toʻrtta „toʻgʻri yoʻl-yoʻriqli“ (rashidun) xalifalar Fors, Levant, Misr va Shimoliy Afrika boʻylab yurgan ilk musulmon istilolarining dastlabki bosqichini nazorat qildilar[18].
Musulmonlarning ilk istilolari gʻarbga qarab kengaydi va bir asrdan kamroq vaqt ichida Yevropa qitʼasining bir qismini qamrab oldi. Arab musulmon qoʻshinlari Ajnadayn (634) va Yarmuk (636)[19] kabi muhim janglarda Vizantiya qoʻshinlari ustidan osonlikcha gʻalaba qozonishdi. Shunday qilib, shimol va gʻarbga surilgan sobiq Vizantiya viloyatini oʻz tarkibiga kiritdilar. Shu bilan birga, Shimoliy Afrika va Yaqin Sharqda arab imperiyalari tomonidan islomning oʻz hukmronligini mustahkamlash tez orada hozirgi Yevropaga bostirib kirishi kerak edi. Yevropa, arab va berber musulmon qoʻshinlari bosqinchilik qilib, oxir-oqibat hududlarni bosib olganida, bu Yevropa qitʼasida musulmonlar tomonidan boshqariladigan davlatlarning paydo boʻlishiga olib keldi.
652-yilda qoʻngan kichik arab va berber kontingenti Vizantiyaning Sitsiliyaga qisqa muddatda bostirib kirishi bir qator bosqinlarning debochasi edi. 8–15-asrlarda musulmon davlatlar Pireney yarim orolining[20] janubiy Italiya[20][21][22], janubiy Fransiya[20] va Oʻrta yer dengizidagi bir qancha orollarining[20][23] ayrim qismlarini boshqargan. Sharqda hududi ancha qisqargan va kuchsizlangan Vizantiya imperiyasiga bostirib kirishlar davom etgan. 720 va 730-yillarda arab va berber musulmonlari kuchlari Pireneydan shimolga, hozirgi Fransiyaga yetib borishdi va ular 732-yilda nasroniy franklar tomonidan magʻlubiyatga uchradilar va oʻzlarining Shimoliy Afrika hududlari Iberiyaga qaytardilar[20].
Islom 711-yildan boshlab, Umaviylar Ispaniyani bosib olishi bilan Yevropa qitʼasida oʻzining birinchi haqiqiy poydevorini qoʻlga kiritdi. Arablar yerni al-Andalus deb oʻzgartirdilar va u shimoliy togʻlarni hisobga olmaganda, hozirgi Portugaliya va Ispaniyaning katta qismlarini qamrab oldi. Arab va berber musulmon kuchlari janubiy Iberiyani bosib olgandan boshlab va al-Andalusga asos solgach, Yevropada turli amirliklarni tashkil qildilar. Krit amirligi 820-yillarning oxiridan 961-yilda Vizantiya imperatori Nikiforos Fokas II magʻlub boʻlgunga qadar Oʻrta yer dengizi boʻyidagi Krit orolida mavjud boʻlgan musulmonlar tomonidan boshqariladigan davlat va musulmon qaroqchilik faoliyati markazi boʻlgan. Vizantiya imperiyasi Kritdan musulmon arablar va berberlarni quvib chiqardi[25]. Ikkinchisi Sitsiliya amirligi boʻlib, bu orolda 831-yildan 1091-yilgacha musulmonlar mavjud boʻlgan. Musulmon arablar va berberlar Sitsiliya va janubiy Italiyaning boshqa hududlarida 1072-yilda xristian normanlari tomonidan magʻlub boʻlgunlaricha, hamda Pireney va Shimoliy Afrika hududlariga haydab chiqarilgunlaricha ushlab turdilar[21][22].
Manbalar
tahrir- ↑ „Global religious futures Europe“. 2022-yil 12-dekabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2023-yil 19-sentyabr.
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 Cesari, Jocelyne (January–June 2002). "Introduction - "L'Islam en Europe: L'Incorporation d'Une Religion"" (fr). Cahiers d'Études sur la Méditerranée Orientale et le monde Turco-Iranien (Paris: Éditions de Boccard) 33: 7–20. doi:10.3406/CEMOT.2002.1623. https://www.persee.fr/doc/cemot_0764-9878_2002_num_33_1_1623. Qaraldi: 21 January 2021.Yevropada islom]]
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 „Part III: The Old European Land of Islam“, The Oxford Handbook of European Islam Cesari: . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014 — 427–616-bet. DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199607976.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-960797-6.
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 Clayer, Nathalie (2004). "Les musulmans des Balkans Ou l'islam de "l'autre Europe"/The Balkans Muslims Or the Islam of the "Other Europe"" (fr). Religions, pouvoir et société: Europe centrale, Balkans, CEI. Le Courrier de Pays de l'Est (Paris: La Documentation française) 5 (1045): 16–27. doi:10.3917/cpe.045.0016. ISSN 0590-0239.
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 Bougarel, Xavier. Les musulmans de l'Europe du Sud-Est: Des Empires aux États balkaniques, Terres et gens d'islam (fr). Paris: IISMM - Karthala, 2013 — 1–20-bet. ISBN 978-2-8111-0905-9.
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 Popović, Alexandre; Rashid, Asma (Summer–Autumn 1997). "The Muslim Culture In The Balkans (16th–18th Centuries)". Islamic Studies (Islamic Research Institute (International Islamic University, Islamabad)) 36 (2/3, Special Issue: Islam In The Balkans): 177–190. ISSN 0578-8072.
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 Malik, Jamal; Zarrabi-Zadeh, Saeed, eds (2019). "Sufism East and West: Mystical Islam and Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Modern World". Sufism East and West: Mystical Islam and Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Modern World. Studies on Sufism. 2. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. 233–258 b. doi:10.1163/9789004393929_011. ISBN 978-90-04-39392-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=5MqiDwAAQBAJ.
- ↑ Macnamara, Ronan (January 2013). "Slavic Muslims: The forgotten minority of Macedonia". Security and Human Rights (Leiden: Brill Publishers/Martinus Nijhoff Publishers on behalf of the Netherlands Helsinki Committee) 23 (4): 347–355. doi:10.1163/18750230-99900038. ISSN 1874-7337.
- ↑ 9,0 9,1 9,2 Buturović, Amila „Part V: Islamic Cultural Region – European Islam“, . The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions Juergensmeyer: . Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press [2006], 2009 — 437–446-bet. DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.003.0043. ISBN 978-0-19-513798-9.
- ↑ Mylonas, Harris, ed (2006). "The Islamization of the Meglen Vlachs (Megleno-Romanians): The Village of Nânti (Nótia) and the "Nântinets" in Present-Day Turkey". Nationalities Papers (Cambridge University Press) 34 (1): 71–90. doi:10.1080/00905990500504871. ISSN 0090-5992. https://archive.org/details/sim_nationalities-papers_2006-03_34_1/page/71.
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 Pew 2011.
- ↑ 12,0 12,1 Aydınlı, Ersel „The Jihadists after 9/11“, . Violent Non-State Actors: From Anarchists to Jihadists, 1st, Routledge Studies on Challenges, Crises, and Dissent in World Politics, London and New York: Routledge [2016], 2018 — 110–149-bet. ISBN 978-1-315-56139-4.
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 13,2 Kallis, Aristotle „Part I: Ideology and Discourse – The Radical Right and Islamophobia“, . The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right Rydgren: . Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2018 — 42–60-bet. DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190274559.013.3. ISBN 9780190274559.
- ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 14,3 Allievi, Stefano „Relations and Negotiations: Issues and Debates on Islam“, . Muslims in the Enlarged Europe: Religion and Society, Muslim Minorities Allievi: . Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2003 — 331–368-bet. ISBN 978-90-04-13201-6.
- ↑ Goodwin, Matthew J.; Cutts, David; Jana-Lipinski, Laurence (September 2014). "Economic Losers, Protestors, and Islamophobes or Xenophobes? Predicting Public Support for a Counter-Jihad Movement". Political Studies (SAGE Publications on behalf of the Political Studies Association) 64: 4–26. doi:10.1111/1467-9248.12159. ISSN 1467-9248. OCLC 1641383.
- ↑ Polk, William R. „The Caliphate and the Conquests“, . Crusade and Jihad: The Thousand-Year War Between the Muslim World and the Global North, The Henry L. Stimson Lectures Series. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018 — 21–30-bet. DOI:10.2307/j.ctv1bvnfdq.7. ISBN 978-0-300-22290-6.
- ↑ van Ess, Josef „Setting the Seal on Prophecy“, . Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra, Volume 1: A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam, Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1: The Near and Middle East. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers, 2017 — 3–7-bet. DOI:10.1163/9789004323384_002. ISBN 978-90-04-32338-4.
- ↑ 18,0 18,1 Lewis, Bernard „Part III: The Dawn and Noon of Islam – Origins“, . The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years. New York: Scribner, 1995 — 51–58-bet. ISBN 9780684832807. OCLC 34190629.
- ↑ Tolan, John Victor. Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002 — 32-bet. ISBN 0231123337.
- ↑ 20,0 20,1 20,2 20,3 20,4 Deanesly, Margaret „The Later Merovingians“, . A History of Early Medieval Europe: From 476–911, 1st, Routledge Library Editions: The Medieval World, London and New York City: Routledge, 2019 — 244–245-bet. ISBN 9780367184582.
- ↑ 21,0 21,1 Brown, Gordon S. „Sicily“, . The Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland [2003], 2015 — 103–113-bet. ISBN 978-0-7864-5127-2.
- ↑ 22,0 22,1 Matthew, Donald „Part I: The Normans and the monarchy – Southern Italy and the Normans before the creation of the monarchy“, . The Norman Kingdom of Sicily, Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press [1992], 2012 — 9–19-bet. DOI:10.1017/CBO9781139167741.004. ISBN 9781139167741.
- ↑ Sofos, Spyros. Islam in Europe: Public Spaces and Civic Networks. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2013 — 31-bet. ISBN 9781137357779.
- ↑ Johnson, Mark J. „Acceptance and Adaptation of Byzantine Architectural Types in the “Byzantine Commonwealth” – Norman Italy“, . The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Art and Architecture Schwartz: . Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2021 — 383–386-bet. DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190277352.013.32. ISBN 9780190277376.
- ↑ Panagiotakis, Nikolaos M. „Εισαγωγικό Σημείωμα ("Introduction")“, . Crete, History and Civilization (el) Panagiotakis: . Vikelea Library, Association of Regional Associations of Regional Municipalities, 1987 — XI–XX-bet.
Adabiyotlar
tahrir- Muslim Europe Or Euro-Islam: Politics, Culture, and Citizenship in the Age of Globalization AlSayyad: . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, co-published with the Center for Middle Eastern Studies (University of California, Berkeley), 2002. ISBN 978-0-7391-0338-8.
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- Bencheikh. „L'Islam dans le Sud-Est Européen“ (fr). www.franceculture.fr. France Culture (2019-yil 19-may). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 25-mart.
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